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Introduction
Some Hints on Reading Torah and Talmud
The Two Torahs: Oral and Written
My goal for this class is to have you learn the essence of Torah, Judaism and Talmudic principles without getting bogged down in the minutia. That is, I want you to learn this information without making it a daunting task. To help simplify things, the class is not replete with cumbersome references, however it would be impossible to accomplish the task without some sort of reference guide. This chapter will be that guide. Don't attempt to read and memorize any of the lists; just know that they are here if questions come up about sources quoted, or how and why rabbis draw their conclusions.
You have certainly heard the words Talmud, Mishna, Gemara, or Midrash before. As Jews, we all have. The problem is that our lax religious schools put more emphasis on preparation for bar or bat mitzvah or confirmation rather than on true Judaic studies and these texts taken from the Oral Torah.
Traditionally these words, these books, are said to have been given to Moses while he was on
The written Torah is easy to describe. In Hebrew it is called the TaNaK, which is actually an acronym formed by the letters of the first words of Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim...namely the Five Books of Moses, the books of the Prophets and the Writings.
The Oral Torah was first the Mishna. This word comes from the Hebrew word for "repeat," as it was repeated orally. It is the same root as the Hebrew word for "year" (shana), which repeats as well. It is the second law. Very tersely written in the Hebrew language, the Mishna began via oral tradition long before the Hebrews came to
Discussions about the Mishna, which included the original parts of the Torah from which the Mishna is derived, is called the Gemara, whose name comes from the word, mara, meaning to learn or study. Gemara is written in Aramaic, the language of the Babylonian street, and unlike the Mishna, which is relatively brief, the Gemara tends to go on and on, moving easily off topic at times. For example, in the middle of rules for Blessings, the Gemara wanders off into an ethical lesson about why it is wrong for one to embarrass another. The Talmud is filled with such ethical Jewish Spiritual Renewal pearls of wisdom on how one should live life.
Together, the Mishna and Gemara comprise the Talmud. It was finally put to writing circa 500 C.E.
Jewish law codes and rules come from the Gemara after the rabbis dissect the Mishna to determine what it is saying as it relates to the Torah law. Hence, while there may be 36 ways to incur the death penalty in the Torah and many in the Mishna, the Gemara, passes so many rules for the courts that it makes it impossible to carry out the death sentence. The Gemara says, for example, that any court handing down one death sentence in seven years is a bloody court. This is why the State of Israel has executed one person in sixty years, and the State of
Written Torah
TaNaK, as mentioned earlier is an acronym formed by Torah, Prophets (Nevi'im) and Writings (Ketuvim).
Jews do not call the TaNaK the "Old Testament" because for Judaism there is nothing old about it. Nothing new or improved comes after TaNaK as far as Judaism is concerned. A book containing only the Torah is sometimes called a Chumash, from the Hebrew word for five as mentioned in the Prologue. Sometimes it is called the Pentateuch, derived from the Greek word for five.
Your study of the Torah will deal with the Five Books. Each book has a Hebrew name derived from the first word or words in the book, just as the parasha's (portion) name comes from the first word or words in the parasha. For example, the first word of the Torah is Beresheit, which means, "In the beginning." Hence this is the Hebrew name of the first book of the Torah as well as the name of the first parasha in the Torah and in the Book of Beresheit.
The English names come from Latin or Greek and have to do with what the Romans, Greeks or early Christians thought the text was about. The chapters and verses were devised by them as well. Hebrews used only the parasha's name. Each parasha is divided into seven sections, called alliyah, from the word that means "going up." In a Traditional Jewish service, seven different people are called to the Torah to bless and thank God for it, and an alliyah is chanted. So traditionally one would find a verse by citing the parasha's name in Hebrew and the alliyah in which the verse is found. However, we all use the same chapter and verse system developed by the church today. This is why you will find some parashot (plural of parasha) beginning or ending in the middle of a chapter.
Here are the names of the second through fifth books:
The second book, Exodus, is about the redemption from
The third book, Leviticus, is about the Priestly duties. Its Hebrew name is Vayikra, which means "God called."
The fourth book, Numbers, is so named because it begins with a census. Its Hebrew name is Bemidbar, which means "In the Desert."
The fifth book, Deuteronomy, which means "second telling" in Latin, repeats much of the first four books. In Hebrew it is called Devarim, meaning "Words."
A very brief outline of each book of the Torah follows:
Beresheit/Genesis (Gen.)
The Creation; Adam and Eve; Cain, Abel and Seth; Noah's Ark; The Tower of Babel; Histories of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob, Rachel and Leah, Joseph and his brothers.
Genesis covers approximately 2,300 years.
Shemot/Exodus (Ex.)
Slavery in Egypt; Moses; The Burning Bush; The Ten Plagues; Crossing of the Sea of Reeds; Revelation at Sinai; The Golden Calf; Building the Desert Tabernacle.
Exodus covers approximately 210 years.
Vayikra/Leviticus (Lev.)
Laws of sacrifices; Purity and Spiritual Dermatitis and the Priesthood; "The Holiness Code" with the famous verse "Love your neighbor as yourself."
Leviticus covers 30 days.
Bemidbar/Numbers (Num.)
Wandering forty years; The Census; The Priestly Benediction; The Sending of Spies; Korach's rebellion.
Numbers covers approximately 38 years.
Devarim/Deuteronomy (Deut.)
Moses's speeches to
Deuteronomy covers 27 days.
Our Table of Contents lists the parasha and the chapter in this text so you can easily locate it. Here is the same list with the Hebrew name of the parasha translated. Most times, I will have done this in the text.
Genesis
Beresheit: "In the Beginning" Genesis 1:1-6:8
Noach: "Noah" Genesis 6:9-11:32
Lech-lecha: "Go You!" Genesis 12:1-17:27
Vayeira: "God Appeared" Genesis 18:1-22:24
Chayei Sarah: "The life of Sarah" Genesis 23:1-25:18
Toldot: "Generations" Genesis 25:19-28:9
Vayeitsei: "And he went out" Genesis 28:10-32:3
Vayishlach: "And he sent" Genesis 32:4-36:43
Vayeishev: "And he sat" Genesis 37:1-40:23
Mikeits: "At the end" Genesis 41:1-44:17
Vayigash: "And he drew near" Genesis 44:18-47:27
Vayyechi: "And he lived" Genesis 47:28-50:26
Exodus
Shemot: "Names" Exodus 1:1-6:1
Va-eira: "And I appeared" Exodus 6:2-9:35
Bo: "Come" Exodus 10:1-13:16
Beshalach: "When he sent" Exodus 13:17-17:16
Yitro: "Jethro" Exodus 18:1-20:23
Mishpatim: "Laws" Exodus 21:1-24:18
Terumah: "An offering" Exodus 25:1-27:19
Titsaveh: "And you will command" Exodus 27:20-30:10
Ki Tisa: "When you take up" Exodus 30:11-34:35
Vayakheil: "And he gathered" Exodus 35:1-38:20
Pekudei: "The accounts" Exodus 38:21-40:38
Leviticus
Vayikra: "And God called" Leviticus 1:1-5:26
Tsav: "Command" Leviticus 6:1-8:36
Shemini: "The eighth" Leviticus 9:1-11:47
Tazria: "She conceived" Leviticus 12:1-13:59
Metsora: "The leper" Leviticus 14:1-15:33
Acharei Mot: "After the death" Leviticus 16:1-18:30
Kedoshim: "Holy Ones" Leviticus 19:1-20:27
Emor: "Say" Leviticus 21:1-24:23
Behar: "In the mountain" Leviticus 25:1-26:2
Behukotai: "In My Laws" Leviticus 26:3-27:34
Numbers
Bamidbar: "In the desert" Numbers 1:1-4:20
Naso: "Take the sum" Numbers 4:21-7:89
Beha-alotecha: "When you take up" Numbers 8:1-12:16
Shlach Lecha: "Send!" Numbers 13:1-15:41
Korach: "Korach" Numbers 16:1-18:32
Chukkat: "The Law" Numbers 19:1-22:1
Balak: "Balak" Numbers 22:2-25:9
Pinchas: "Pinchas" Numbers 25:10-30:1
Mattot: "Tribes" Numbers 30:2-32:42
Massei: "Journeys" Numbers 33:1-36:13
Deuteronomy
Devarim: "Words" Deuteronomy 1:1-3:22
Va'etchanan: "And I besought" Deuteronomy 3:23-7:11
Eikev: "Therefore" Deuteronomy 7:12-11:25
Re'eh: "See!" Deuteronomy 11:26-16:17
Shoftim: "Judges" Deuteronomy 16:18-21:9
Ki Teitsei: "When you go out" Deuteronomy 21:10-25:19
Ki Tavo: "When you come" Deuteronomy 26:1-29:8
Nitsavim: "Commanded" Deuteronomy 29:9-30:20
Vayeileich: "And he went" Deuteronomy 31:1-30
Ha-azinu: "Pay attention" Deuteronomy 32:1-52
V'zot Habracha: "And this is the blessing" Deuteronomy 33:1-34:12
Torah requires a special reading technique that I will teach you as we go along. Different texts, from the Talmud to the Zohar (Kabbalist book of Radiance), are used. This method of reading is called "pardes," an Aramaic word meaning either "the orchard" or "paradise." It is another word for the Garden of Eden, or in Hebrew, Gan Eden. Pardes has four levels:
1. Peshat, "The Simple Meaning," is the straightforward meaning.
2. Remez, "Hint," is the meaning hinted through numerology and plays on words.
3. Drash, "Exposition," is the meaning the rabbis developed from their discussions and is written in the Talmud and in the Midrash (parables).
4. Sod, "Secret," is the secret mystical meaning in the Zohar.
Note how the four methods form the acronym PaRDeS.
The next two parts of the TaNaK, Prophets and Writings, may be read in a more straightforward manner.
Prophets - Nevi'im
The Prophets were the ones who transmitted God's word to the Hebrew people. Some were also military leaders called Judges. This section of the TaNaK covers the period from Joshua, through the stories of Kings Saul, David and Solomon, the split of the kingdoms of Judea and Israel, the destruction of Israel in the North in 721 B.C.E. by the Assyrians, the destruction of the Temple in Judea in the south in 586 B.C.E and the captivity of the Jews in Babylonia. This is approximately from 1190-520 B.C.E.
Writings/Ketuvim
The Ketuvim, "Writings" are a combination of histories like Ezra, poetry like Psalms, or Wisdom like Proverbs. Five of the books in this section are called The Five Megillot (scrolls). They are read on five different holidays, for example, the Book of Esther is read on Purim.
Throughout this book, study of each Torah portion (parasha) will include an exploration of its corresponding Haftarah. Note the spelling. Haftarah is sometimes mistaken to mean "half-Torah." It does not. In fact, the word has nothing to do with "Torah" and comes from the Hebrew word meaning "dismiss or release." It is a reading from the Prophets and its contents parallel the Torah portion. The Haftarah was developed, according Rabbi Abudraham (1340 C.E.,
Now back to the Oral Torah. I realize that some of this is getting a bit tedious, but please stay with me. I promised you that this study of the Torah would be spiritual, not dry or legalistic and I will keep that promise. We do, however, need to get some facts straight so that you are prepared to get the most out of the journey to come. So please bear with the ennui you may be feeling while reading this chapter as the rest of the book will be more inspiring and moving.
The Mishna contains six sections called orders or sederim. Notice that sederim has same root as a Passover seder (order of the service and meal) as well as sidur, the word for a prayer book that presents prayers in order. The sections are:
1. Seder Zeraim "Seeds:" Laws relating to agriculture and blessings over food and other prayers.
2. Seder Moed "Appointed Times, Festivals:" Laws pertaining to the Shabbat, Festivals and Fasts.
3. Seder Nashim "Women:" The laws regarding marriage, divorce, contracts and vows.
4. Seder Nezikin "Damages:" Civil and criminal law, corporal and capital punishments, the courts and testimonies. Pirkei Avot, Ethics of the Fathers, is in this section.
5. Seder Kodashim "Holy Things:" Laws of the
6. Seder Toharot "Purity:" Ritual purity and impurity laws.
Each of these six Orders of the Mishna is divided into tractates (books). These tractates are divided into chapters. The chapters are divided into smaller numbered segments called Mishna (singular) or Mishnayot (plural). The Mishna is made up of thousands of these Mishnayot.
Not every Mishna has a Gemara with it. For example Pirkei Avot has no Gemara. When a Mishna has a Gemara, as discussed above, it is a commentary on the Mishna as well as the Torah portion from which the Mishna is derived. Rabbis lived in both
Like a plank or board or oar, a daf has two sides. Each side is called an "amud." So you may see "49b" or "32a" as a page number.
The Seders and their 63 Tractates of Talmud are:
Seder Zeraim
Beracoth "Blessings:" Laws about the Shema; Amidah; Blessings for Food.
Peah "Corner of the field:" Laws regarding leaving the corners of one's fields not harvested so that they can be gleaned by the needy.
Demai "Doubtfully tithed:" What to do with produce that might not be tithed correctly.
Kilayim "Mixtures:" Agricultural laws about the mixing of species.
Shevi'it "Seventh:" Sabbatical Year rules.
Terumot "Priests' portion:" Rules about produce given to the priests.
Ma'asrot "Tithes:" Rules about donating ten percent of a person's crop.
Ma'aser Sheni "Second Tithe:" Laws of the second tithe.
Challah "Dough:" The rules giving some separated dough to the priests.
Orlah "Uncircumcised fruit:" Rule about not using fruit until the tree is 3 years old.
Bikkurim "First fruits:" First fruit offerings.
Seder Moed
Shabbat "Sabbath:" Shabbat rules.
Eruvin "Mergings:" More Shabbat rules, including setting up at Eruv.
Pesachim "Pascal offerings:" Passover rules.
Shekalim "Shekels:"
Yoma "The Day:" Yom Kippur rules.
Sukkah "Booth:" Sukkoth rules.
Beitsah "Egg:" Festival rules.
Rosh HaShanah "New Year:" Rosh HaShanah rules.
Ta'anit "Fast:" Public fast days rules.
Megillah "Scroll:" Esther and the Torah reading laws.
Moed Katan "Minor Festival:" Chol HaMoed, the intermediate days of weekly holiday rules.
Chagigah "Festival offering:" Festival offerings.
Seder Nashim
Yebamot "Sisters-in-law:" Levirate marriage rules (see prologue about Tamar).
Ketubot "Wedding Contracts:" Weddings and marriage rules.
Nedarim "Vows:" Vow laws.
Nazir "Nazirite:" Nazirite rules.
Sotah "Suspected Adulterous Wife:" Sotah ceremony.
Gittin "Divorce Documents:" Divorce rules.
Kiddushin "Betrothals:" Betrothal rules.
Seder Nezikin
Baba Kamma "The First Gate:" Civil and criminal law.
Baba Metsia "The Middle Gate:" Business law.
Baba Batra "The Last Gate:" Rules for partnerships, sales, inheritance, etc.
Sanhedrin "Sanhedrin:" Capital punishment laws; rules of the Messiah and Heaven in last Chapter.
Makkot "Lashes:" Corporal punishment.
Shevuot "Oaths:" Public and private oaths laws.
Eduyot "Testimonies:" Miscellaneous Mishnayot.
Avodah Zarah "Strange Worship:" Relationship between Jews and non-Jews.
Pirkei Avot "Ethics of the Fathers:" Wisdom of the Rabbis.
Horayot "Decisions:" Rules of Beth Din (Rabbinical Court).
Seder Kodashim
Zevachim "Animal Sacrifices:" Animal sacrifice rules.
Menachot "Meal Offerings:" The laws tefillin, fringes, and meal-offerings.
Chullin "Unhallowed:" Kosher slaughtering rules.
Bekhorot "Firstlings:" Firstborn male animal rules.
Arakhin "Valuations:"
Temurah "Substitution:" Substitution of one sacrifice for another laws.
Keritot "Excisions:" Excommunication sins.
Me'ilah "Sacrilege:" Unlawful use
Tamid "Daily Sacrifices:"
Middot "Measurements:" The architecture of the
Kinnim "Birds' nests:" Bird sacrifice laws.
Seder Toharot
Keilim "Vessels:" Vessels that are ritually impure laws.
Ohalot "Tents:" Dead bodies in tents causing ritual impurity laws.
Negaim "Leprosy:" Leprosy laws.
Parah "Heifer:" Red Heifer laws.
Toharot "Purifications:" Ritual impurity rules.
Mikvaot "Ritual Immersion:" Mickva use and construction rules.
Niddah "Menstruant:" Menstruating women laws.
Makhshirin "Preparations:" Keeping food from being impure.
Zavim "Secretions:" Ritual impurity from genital secretions laws.
Tevul Yom "Immersed during the day:" Rules for one who goes to the mickva in the day but is not ritually pure until dusk.
Yadayim "Hands:" Hand washing rules.
Uktsin "Stems:" Rules about the ritual impurity of stems of fruits.
As discussed, the Gemara tends to go off track. That is what makes it fun to read and study. You will find Halachah, Jewish law and debates about it. You will read Midrash parables that are related to a part of TaNaK and try to fill in left out sections, like what happened while on board Noah's ark. And you will discover Aggadah, tales that are not related to the TaNaK, but might be about a rabbi and will illustrate a point. I quote from all of these parts.
Lastly, because the Talmud is the beginning of Jewish law, not Hebraic law, and because it is discussed in the Gemara during a 1,000-year period from 586 B.C.E. to circa 500 C.E., the laws are not in an exact order and difficult to find. Hence two rabbis wrote Jewish law down so that Jews and their rabbis could follow it. The trouble is, since the Gemara gives all sides to an argument, and many discussions were left in the air until Elijah came back down to earth to give the answer, when these two rabbis distilled the Talmud their own opinions entered Jewish law as well as the customs (minhag) of their time.
Often quoted is Maimonides's Mishneh Torah (The Second Torah). Moses Maimonides Rambam was a 12th century Spanish and Egyptian philosopher, Jewish legal scholar and physician. His comprehensive work covers all of Jewish law, even parts that are no longer valid such as sacrifices.
Also quoted throughout is Joseph Caro's (1488-1575) Shulchan Aruch (The Set Table). The Shulchan Aruch contains only those laws that can be applied to life today. But both books took the ethical flavor out of the Talmud, and left strict legalism and definite rules in its place.
When these two books are followed, along with study of just the Torah, we get a Judaism without love, kindness, peace, and forgiveness from either God or for each other. It is a Judaism more concerned with making the minyon on time an hour before dusk, than with visiting someone in the hospital. It is a Judaism more concerned about un-koshering one's plate, than about putting some food on it as soon as possible to feed a hungry man. By contrast, the Judaism of the Talmud and of this book that you have in your hands is nothing like that…thank God.
You are now ready to flip the page and begin at "the beginning," Beresheit.
Shalom,
Rabbi Arthur Segal
Hebrew College, Newton Centre, MA, USA
via Shamash Org on-line class program
Jewish Renewal
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